Brief History of Iran free essay sample

The Safavid Empire ruled over modern day Iran, the Republic of Azerbaijan, Republic of Armenia, Georgia, Iraq, Afghanistan, and the Caucasus. Although Islamic conquest in Iran started way back in 633 BC, the Safavid Dynasty is primarily known for establishing Shia Islam as the official religion of Iran. This lead to the decline of the Zoroastrian and Bahai faiths which are ancient religions originating in Iran. Shah Ismail I was the first Shah of the Safavid Dynasty, he was primarily responsible for converting Iran from Sunni to Shia Islam. Ismail served as a spiritual leader to the people of Iran, under his rule anyone who wasn’t part of the Shia Islam faith faced extreme religious prosecution and essentially were forced to convert. In the 18th century the Safavid Dynasty was weakened because of attacks from Russians and the Ottoman Empire. The Safavids also fought several brutal battles in Afghanistan because the Afghans were Sunni and they didn’t want to accept Shia Islam as the official religion of their land. We will write a custom essay sample on Brief History of Iran or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With all the chaos the Safavids faced, Iran started becoming helpless and began relying on European powers. By the early 18th century Iran was completely economically dependent on Europe. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of this vulnerable time for Iran and initiated a major invasion of the country resulting in the loss of many territories to the Ottomans including most of Azerbaijan and Georgia. The empire also started to decline militarily, leaving it more susceptible to invasion from the east. In 1722 Afghan forces invaded and murdered Shah Sultan Hossein. The invasion had catastrophic affects on Iran and thus began the fall of the Safavid Empire. After the Afghan invasion the Ottomans once again took advantage of this opportunity and started occupying areas in western Iran, while the Russians held areas near the Capsian Sea. The loss of all this territory eventually resulted in the demise of the Safavid Empire. After the fall of the Safavid Dynasty there were several other minor short-lived dynasties throughout the mid 1700s. These dynasties separated the Iranian people and were constantly in competition with the Shahs of other dynasties. The Qajar dynasty took power in 1781 and unified the Iranian people. Qajar Dynasty (1796-1825) Prior to the Qajar Dynasty, many short-lived dynasties sprang up throughout the greater part of the 18th century. Originally from lands near present-day Azerbaijan, Agha Mohammad Khan, of one the Qajar tribes ascended to power during a period of rivalry among members of the previous Zand dynasty. Although known to be extremely violent and brutal, Agha Mohammad was crucial in establishing the Qajar dynasty and uniting the different factions of Persia1. After his assassination in 1797, his nephew Fath Ali Shah succeeded to the throne and a few years later went to war with Russia. The Russo-Persian War of 1804 to 1813 started because the Russians started to encroach on Caucasus territories that had traditionally belonged to Persia. The Russian take-over of the city of Ganja and the murder of the Qajar governor was a threat to the safety of the Qajar Empire. Although the Persians outnumbered the Russians, they had much better technology and battle plans. Therefore, the Russians won and Fath Ali was forced to sign the Treaty of Gullistan which gave Russia any previously disputed or partially independent territories in Caucasus (most notably Georgia). The second Russo-Persian War also resulted in a defeat for the Qajars and they were forced to sign the Treaty of Turkmanch (1828) which gave Russians control over the entire area north of the Aras River (present day Azerbaijan and Armenia). The end of Fath Ali Shah’s reign was marked by an increase in European diplomatic competition between territories ancestrally controlled by Persia. Naser-e-Din was the next major Shah to control the Qajar Dynasty. Under his direction, Persia quickly became more westernized due to the introduction of different methods of education, science, and technological advances. Although he tried to get prevent further European encroachment upon Persia, he was unsuccessful in doing so. While he did do a lot for the modernization of Iran, Naser-e-Din’s continued the terrible habit of frivolous spending of government money. One of Naser-e-Din’s advisors tried to initiate reforms that drastically cut government spending, however; these initiatives were at odds with the interests of many officials and they convinced the Shah to dismiss and murder a man that could have really brought Iran out of debt and more resistant to the surrounding Europe and Russia. In 1896, the throne was passed down to Naser-e-Din’s son, Mozaffaredin Shah-eh Qajar. Continuing his predecessor’s trend of exorbitant spending, Persia was now basically at the control of Britain and Russia due to the many loans taken from them just to accommodate various personal expenses. Furthermore, since Persia had almost no incoming revenue, there was no way the debt to these foreign powers was going to be paid. This fiscal crisis caused outcry and discussion among educated merchants and notable religious leaders. They came to the conclusion that the current monarchy’s power needed to be curbed. Instead, a new political system was called for that established a rule of law and gave the people more of a voice. This rebellion became known as the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911). After much resistance, Mozafferdin finally signed a constitution drafted by an elected assembly that identified basic rights (i. e. freedom of speech and press). Unfortunately, the constitution remained largely ineffective due to the recalcitrance of the monarchy. Any hope that Constitutional Revolution would bring about independence was shattered with the Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1907. This divided Persia into two â€Å"sphere of influence,† one controlled by Russia and the other by Britain. Both parties were granted access to any potential interests in their respective spheres and competition was allowed for any desired assets in the neutral zone. The ultimate decline of the Qajar Dynasty was brought about by World War I and the associated occupation of Persia by British, Russian, and Ottoman forces as well as the succession of Reza Shah Pahlavi. The Qajar Dynasty should be remembered for attempts at advancement towards the modernization of Persia. Disappointingly, the careless and selfish expenditures of the Shahs did not allow for this to happen. Due to heavy debt and no source of incoming revenue, Persia could never gain independence from foreign powers during these years. Pahlavi Dynasty After the fall of the Qajar Dynasty the Pahlavi Dynasty took control in 1925. The Majlis (National Assembly) declared Reza Khan as Shah of Persia. Reza Khan began the Pahlavi with a vision of modernizing Iran. During his sixteen year reign, he developed large scale industries, built the trans-Iranian Railway, which connected the north of the country to the south. He reformed the judiciary system, improved healthcare and established a national public education by founding the University of Tehran. At the beginning of Reza Shah’s rule all women in Iran wore the Hijab out in public because it had been Islamic tradition for hundreds of years. Women wore it because it was tradition and protesting it would be considered anti-Islam. Under Reza Shah’s rule, in the late 1930s, he declared the Hijab illegal because he believed it held women back and prevented them from contributing to the progress of the country. This ruling infuriated many traditional religious people but this didn’t affect Reza Shah in anyway and he kept ruling the country how he chose. Although Reza Shah brought about many positive changes to Iran he angered many people. Under his rule there was no freedom of speech and anyone who criticized him would be imprisoned, tortured and even killed. In 1935 Reza Shah issued a letter to the League of Nations insisting that the name â€Å"Iran† be used instead of Persia which it had been referred to up till then. The name â€Å"Iran† is a cognate of â€Å"Aryan† and means Land of the Aryans. A few Persian scholars protested this decision on the grounds that it created a break with the history of the country and that it seemed to be influenced by the Aryan propaganda of Nazi Germany, but Reza Shah argued that, in their own language, the people of Persia had called their country â€Å"Iran† for hundreds of years and that â€Å"Pars† or â€Å" Fars,† from which â€Å"Persia† had derived, was the name of a province in central Iran. He hoped that officially calling the country Iran would give it a modern image. During WWII, Reza Shah avoided involvement with Britain and the Soviets and proclaimed a Declaration of Neutrality. The refusal by Reza Shah to allow Iranian territory to be used as a transport passageway to ship arms to the Soviet Union for its war against Germany was the biggest motive for the Allied Forces invasion of Iran. The Allied Forces eventually exiled Reza Shah and took control of the railroad and communication systems. On September 16, 1941 Reza Shah’s son Mohammed Reza Shah replaced his father and took the throne. In January of 1942 Britain and Russia signed an agreement to respect Iran’s interdependence and withdrew their troops. By 1944 Iran’s political system began to evolve, political parties were formed and the Majles election of 1944 were the first competitive elections in over 20 years. On April 28, 1951 Mohammed Mosaddeq was elected as the new Prime Minister of Iran. Dr. Mosaddeq was extremely popular among the Iranian people. He nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) which allowed for government ownership of the assets. By doing this Britain lost money on its oil trade. Britain made sure Iran couldn’t sell any oil by evacuating technicians. Iran’s oil industry became idle and Iran started losing money rapidly. Britain was losing money as well so they decided to team up with the US and started publicly disapproving of Mosaddeq’s policy and claiming that he is taking the country towards communism. Keep in my mind this was in the early 1950’s when anti-communism hysteria was at its peak. The CIA along with the cooperation of Mohammed Reza overthrew and arrested Mosaddeq. Western interference upset the Iranian people and anti-western sentiments started to grow. When Mohammed Reza came back to power he started implementing liberal policies which the Iranian people deemed pro-western and thus the Islamic Revolution began. Islamic Revolution of 1979 The White Revolution occurred before the Islamic Revolution and was essentially a series of modern reforms which was what caused the drastic response of traditionalist Islamic leaders. The series of reforms included extension of voting rights for women, land reform, an initiative to spread literacy, nationalization of many things (like forests), and some other progressive changes. Ultra-conservative Islamic Shi’i leaders, most prominently Ayatollah Khomeini, feared that this White Revolution was too westernized and would lead to a dangerous shift against Islam. When he tried to promulgate this message, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi arrested him and eventually exiled him to about 13 years in Iraq and 1 year in France. While in exile, Khomeini spread his message in Iran through music cassettes and by 1977 demonstrations against Shah Pahlavi began marking the early stages of the Islamic Revolution. By January of 1979 the situation was too much to contain and the Shah was forced to leave. Two weeks later Khomeini returned to Iran and was met with an overwhelming amount of support. He proceeded to re-write the entire constitution and base it completely on Islamic laws. Any opposition to him in the form of media was shut down and any opponents of his were executed. Because most of his followers were not aware of his extremism (as well as a ballot that only offered one choice either support or opposition to the Islamic Republic), Khomeini won by a landslide. Thus, Iran voted to become an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 and approved a new democratic-theocratic hybrid constitution in which Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country starting in December of the same year. Supporters would soon realize that this new constitution actually in no way democratic. Immediately after his victory, extremist laws were put into place that required all women to wear the hijab, that outlawed music other than military and religious chants, books written by foreign authors (Jane Austen, Ernest Hemingway, etc. ), dance of any sort, and the spread of any Western influences. If women were caught not wearing the hijab properly an organization known as the â€Å"Hezbollah† (Party of God) would attack them. School teachers and professors were fired, universities were shut down, the normal curriculum was abandoned and instead 18-19 year old females would brain-wash students and feed them government propaganda. It is also important to note the great number of students were arrested and held in prisons across the nation, most notoriously in a city north of Tehran called Evin. These teens were arrested for supposed political opposition to the new Islamic Constitution. They were put through physical and emotional torture for periods up to two years and largely ignored by the international and national community2. Also during the initial Revolution, a group of Islamist students and militants took over the American Embassy and held sixty-six American diplomats hostage. Most were only released about 1. years later in January of 1981 after many negotiations with the U. S. and the signing of the Algiers Accord. A crucial question to examine after reflecting on the Islamic Revolution is, how come citizens did not massively revolt against this stifling regime? There are a few reasons for this. First of all, the only reason Khomeini found so much support was that he promised to give the citizens democ racy and freedom without interruption from foreign powers. As previously mentioned, many Iranian citizens had become extremely irritated and frustrated with interventions from the West. This led to bitter feelings and resentment towards Western philosophies and ideals and is one of the reasons why Iranians were so ready to accept Khomeini’s Islam based ideals. After the Revolution, the drastic changes that were put into place were not heavily noticed by many because once the Iran-Iraq War began, people were told and rationalized that many issues would go away once the War was over. The nationalistic attitude that arose from the War was used to deceive citizens and turn their attention away from the more frightening problem of having elected an overly zealous Islamic dictator. People who were opposed to the Revolution were also accused of being anti-nationalistic and secretly supportive of Saddam Hussein. Also, even if people did realize the true monster behind Khomeini, the scare tactics he used to make sure no one tried to overthrow his rule were vicious enough to make people submit to his power. Persian Gulf War Recent The Persian Gulf War (Iran-Iraq War) was started by Sadam Hussein after border tensions between the two countries began to rise. He saw a chance to make territorial gains and an opportunity to overthrow the Khomeini’s regime which conservative Sunni’s saw as a threat. Iraq invaded Iran on September 22, 1980 and the war lasted until August of 1988 making it the longest war of the twentieth century. There were over half a million deaths and severe economic damage on both sides. The U. S. was involved in a political scandal with Iran called the Iran-contra affair in which the Reagan administration violated its own laws and secretly sold arms to Iran in hopes that the arms sales would secure the release of U. S. hostages and allow the U. S. to fund the Nicaraguan Contras. Part of the deal was that the U. S. would send American-made anti tank missiles to Iran from Israel. In 1997 Mohammed Khatami was elected president. He pursued political reform and liberalization. He also attempted to stabilize relations with the West and reduce tensions. Khatami was quite popular among Persian people and he was re-elected in 2001. In 2002 President Bush refers to Iran as part of the â€Å"axis of evil† in his State of the Union Address, this upset many Iranians. In 2005 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected president in place of Khatami. Ahmadinejad brought back conservative policies. Under his presidency dress codes and persecution of minorities became stricter, many homosexuals were also hanged. Ahmadinejad refused to stop uranium enrichment as demanded by the United Nations. He was re-elected in 2009 in a suspiciously large victory. Opponents claimed obvious fraud and protestors took to the streets, but the government didn’t back down and killed at least 20 demonstrators. The Obama administration currently has a policy of engagement with Iran, but no results can be seen so far. Conclusion Iran’s modern history is full of complexities. Iran struggles to this day to achieve a democracy. It seems like every time got closer to achieving that goal Western powers interfered and prevented that from happening. For example with Prime Minister Mosaddeq if Britain and the U. S. allowed Mosaddeq to run the country the way he wanted Iran may have achieved a style of democracy that works for them and the Islamic revolution may have never taken place. I believe that if the U. S. and Britain hadn’t been so greedy with money and oil the Islamic revolution may have never occurred and we would have diplomatic relations with Iran right now. Hopefully one day I will witness the day Iran truly achieves a democracy. Endnotes: 1. Ghani, Cyrus. Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power.

Biography of Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor

Biography of Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor Fast Facts: Frederick I (Barbarossa) Known For: Holy Roman Emperor and Warrior KingAlso Known As: Frederick Hohenstaufen, Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor Frederick I of the Holy Roman Empire  Born: Exact date unknown; circa 1123, birthplace thought to be SwabiaParents:  Frederick II, Duke of Swabia, Judith, the daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria, known also as Henry the Black.  Died: June 10, 1190 near Saleph  River,  Cilician ArmeniaSpouse(s): Adelheid of Vohburg, Beatrice I, Countess of BurgundyChildren: Beatrice, Frederick V, Duke of Swabia, Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor,  Conrad, later renamed  Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia, Gisela, Otto I, Count of Burgundy, Conrad II, Duke of Swabia  and Rothenburg, Renaud, William, Philip of Swabia, AgnesNotable Quote: It is not for the people to give laws to the prince, but to obey his mandate. (attributed) Early Life Frederick I Barbarossa was born in 1122 to Frederick II, Duke of Swabia, and his wife Judith. Barbarossas parents were members of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and House of Welf, respectively. This provided him with strong family and dynastic ties that would aid him later in life. At the age of 25, he became the Duke of Swabia following his fathers death. Later that year, he accompanied his uncle Conrad III, King of Germany, on the Second Crusade. Though the crusade was a tremendous failure, Barbarossa acquitted himself well and earned the respect and trust of his uncle. King of Germany Returning to Germany in 1149, Barbarossa remained close to Conrad and in 1152, he was summoned by the king as he lay on his deathbed. As Conrad neared death, he presented Barbarossa with the Imperial seal and stated that the 30-year-old duke should succeed him as king. This conversation was witnessed by the Prince-Bishop of Bamberg, who later stated that Conrad was in full possession of his mental powers when he named Barbarossa his successor. Moving quickly, Barbarossa garnered the support of the prince-electors and was named king on March 4, 1152. As Conrads 6-year-old son had been prevented from taking his fathers place, Barbarossa named him Duke of Swabia. Ascending to the throne, Barbarossa wished to restore Germany and the Holy Roman Empire to the glory it had achieved under Charlemagne. Traveling through Germany, Barbarossa met with the local princes and worked to end the sectional strife. Using an even hand, he united the princes interests while gently reasserting the power of the king. Though Barbarossa was King of Germany, he had not yet been crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope. Marching to Italy In 1153, there was a general feeling of dissatisfaction with the papal administration of the Church in Germany. Moving south with his army, Barbarossa sought to calm these tensions and concluded the Treaty of Constance with Pope Adrian IV in March 1153. By the terms of the treaty, Barbarossa agreed to aid the pope in fighting his Norman enemies in Italy in exchange for being crowned Holy Roman Emperor. After suppressing a commune led by Arnold of Brescia, Barbarossa was crowned by the Pope on June 18, 1155. Returning home that fall, Barbarossa encountered renewed bickering among the German princes. To calm affairs in Germany, Barbarossa gave the Duchy of Bavaria to his younger cousin Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony. On June 9, 1156, at Wà ¼rzburg, Barbarossa married Beatrice of Burgundy. Next, he intervened in a Danish civil war between Sweyn III and Valdemar I the following year. In June 1158, Barbarossa prepared a large expedition to Italy. In the years since he was crowned, a growing rift had opened between the emperor and the pope. While Barbarossa believed that the pope should be subject to the emperor, Adrian, at the Diet of Besanà §on, claimed the opposite. Marching into Italy, Barbarossa sought to reassert his imperial sovereignty. Sweeping through the northern part of the country, he conquered city after city and occupied Milan on September 7, 1158. As tensions grew, Adrian considered excommunicating the emperor; he died before taking any action. In September 1159, Pope Alexander III was elected and immediately moved to claim papal supremacy over the empire. In response to Alexanders actions and his excommunication, Barbarossa began supporting a series of antipopes beginning with Victor IV. Traveling back to Germany in late 1162, to quell unrest caused by Henry the Lion, he returned to Italy the following year with the goal of conquering Sicily. These plans quickly changed when he was required to suppress uprisings in northern Italy. In 1166, Barbarossa attacked toward Rome at won a decisive victory at the Battle of Monte Porzio. His success proved short-lived, however, as disease ravaged his army and he was forced to retreat back to Germany. Remaining in his realm for six years, he worked to improve diplomatic relations with England, France, and the Byzantine Empire. Lombard League During this time, several of the German clergy had taken up the cause of Pope Alexander. Despite this unrest at home, Barbarossa again formed a large army and crossed the mountains into Italy. Here, he met the united forces of the Lombard League, an alliance of northern Italian cities fighting in support of the pope. After winning several victories, Barbarossa requested that Henry the Lion join him with reinforcements. Hoping to increase his power through the possible defeat of his uncle, Henry refused to come south. On May 29, 1176, Barbarossa and a detachment of his army were badly defeated at Legnano, with the emperor believed killed in the fighting. With his hold over Lombardy broken, Barbarossa made peace with Alexander at Venice on July 24, 1177. Recognizing Alexander as pope, his excommunication was lifted and he was reinstated into the Church. With peace declared, the emperor and his army marched north. Arriving in Germany, Barbarossa found Henry the Lion in open rebellion of his authority. Invading Saxony and Bavaria, Barbarossa captured Henrys lands and forced him into exile. Third Crusade Though Barbarossa had reconciled with the pope, he continued to take actions to strengthen his position in Italy. In 1183, he signed a treaty with the Lombard League, separating them from the pope. Also, his son Henry married Constance, the Norman princess of Sicily, and was proclaimed King of Italy in 1186. While these maneuvers led to increased tension with Rome, it did not prevent Barbarossa answering the call for the Third Crusade in 1189. Death Working in conjunction with Richard I of England and Philip II of France, Barbarossa formed an immense army with the goal of retaking Jerusalem from Saladin. While the English and French kings traveled by sea to the Holy Land with their forces, Barbarossas army was too large and was forced to march overland. Moving through Hungary, Serbia, and the Byzantine Empire, they crossed the Bosporus into Anatolia. After fighting two battles, they arrived at the Saleph River in southeast Anatolia. While stories vary, it is known that Barbarossa died on June 10, 1190, while jumping into or crossing the river. His death led to chaos within the army and only a small fraction of the original force, led by his son Frederick VI of Swabia, reached Acre. Legacy Over the centuries following his death, Barbarossa became a symbol for German unity. During the 14th century, there was a belief that he would rise from the imperial castle of Kyffhuser. During World War II, the Germans launched a massive attack against Russia, which they dubbed Operation Barbarossa in honor of the medieval emperor.

Position Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Position Paper - Essay Example Due to the importance of the learning process this position paper was created to compare and contrast the learning assessment performed by Jim Evans in 1962 and two alternate ways to assess learning of students. The position of the writer is that the traditional learning assessment performed by Mr. Evans is inadequate to determine if real learning occurred. The proposed methods to assess learning which are far superior to the techniques utilized by Mr. Evans are simulation and essays. Jim Evans performed a teaching workshop to state agencies for creating effective visuals in which the teaching objectives were outstanding. As an educator Mr. Evans taught a class in which most students seemed to be satisfied until he decided to utilize a 50 item test as the only assessment of what the students had learned during the workshop course. Some students immediately complain after not doing well on the test, some of the comments included constructive criticism such as, â€Å"the teacher continue his lesson assuming everyone had learned the concept he was teaching† (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p.104). The methods Mr. Evans utilized did not truly reflect a correct basis to determine if students actually learned the basics they must have picked up from the course. Mr. Evans was teaching a short course to a group of adults. He utilized a technique more appropriate to ensure younger students learning basic skills such as intermediate math or elementary grammar. In this type of course the teachers has to ensure specific items of knowledge are learned to ensure the student learned knowledge they need for future courses. In those types of scenarios the students are taking a course that lasts a semester typically in which they are numerous class reunions and the instructor is able to teach different segments of the material and emphasize on theories and specific applications that are easy to evaluate through a series of written tests. Mr. Evans was not